List routines and procedures to be used in and out of the classroom Essay

List routines and procedures to be used in and out of the classroom - Essay Example (Emmer 2003) Beginning of the day. When the bell rings students have to enter classroom under the direction of elementary teacher. They are entering by way of the door that is assigned to their class. Routines in the beginning of the day can be different, for example, students can create a crossword puzzle using key classroom rules as a clue or they can create different word puzzles that will contain hidden messages for each student. But the most interesting routine will be getting acquainted with rules and other students. The procedure is rather simple. It will allow students to become familiar with main policies, rules and their classmates. Such routine is useful for students to get know each other better. And finally it will help in finding out shy students or such who don’t want to interact. A procedure embraces three simple steps: Transition between activities. Students have to be prepared for transitions between activities. Visual supports may help students to see that the activity is ending and it is time for another activity. Verbal warnings and cues may be also used as a signal to transition. Transitions are easier is they are essential part of class routine. If students are with special needs experience fewer behavioral problems if they are taught transition. Children will move from activity to another with more confidence. Possible routines can be visual cues (social stories, flicking light, visual schedules, using pictures, etc.). A procedure will be the next: Field trip. Field trip is the extension of school curriculum and school day. All school rules affect field trip. The weather for field trip must be clear and all events have to be planned for the early summer or late spring. Students have to prepare meals and to clean up. The routine is to observe the greatest number of insects and to learn something new about them. Students must have notebooks, collecting equipment and field guides. Such activity will be interesting for children,

Cognitive Psychology Essay Example for Free

Cognitive Psychology Essay Cognitive Psychology is the study of how people absorb, process and store information. It is considered as a discipline in dealing with other fields like science, philosophy and language. Perception, thinking, attention, memory, decision Making and Problem Solving ability are some factors that determine this field of psychology. This field serves as an aid in making educational curriculum and other software designs needed for learning. Studying this field focuses on human information processing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Internal mental state is the focus of cognitive psychology. People who focuses on this field merely studies how to understand, trace and find cure to serious problems relating to mental health. There are 7 themes associated with Cognitive Psychology: Attention, Automatic and conscious processing, Data driven and conceptually driven processing, Knowledge representation, Metacognition, Unconscious processing and Levels of analysis in cognitive science (Pritchard, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One discipline involved in this field is that cognitive psychology is said to be different from neuroscience because it discusses information processing at a software level. The primary method used is through experimentation on human subjects. Wilhelm Wundt is one remarkable cognitive psychologist who established his first laboratory in 1879. His study focuses on conscious experience (Pritchard, 2000). â€Å"Wundt did experiments involving introspection. Introspection is self-examination of the mind, or conscious experience. Wundt asked subjects to introspect about the feelings and sensations they had in response to a physical stimulus† (Pritchard, 2000). His perseverance on studying cognitive psychology made him consider this subject as a formal academic discipline.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Through further studies and continuous search for developing this field, Wundt was able to train another psychologist like him in the person of Edward Titchener. â€Å"Titchener tried to determine the contents of the mind further (Pritchard, 2000). Structuralism was discovered by him where he was able to determine the elements of thought and how those elements were   combined.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another fundamental of cognitive psychology is Herman Ebbinghaus discovery during the late 19th century. â€Å"Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables to study memory in a quantifiable manner. Nonsense syllables are CVCs, consonant- vowel-consonant trigrams. Ebbinghaus chose those as his subject matter, because he wanted to study memory in a pure form. Hence, he did not want to use items that already had some meaning attached to them. Ebbinghaus demonstrated effects of interference, practice time and forgetting† (Pritchard, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another proponent is Edward Tolman who was famous because of his work that centered around animals who demonstrates behaviors based on expectations and internal factors. The importance of his study on cognitive psychology is about memorization. He made experiment on rats by putting them in a maze after they were trained. The rats reached the goal point without going to the learned place. This supported the notion that they had created a cognitive map.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Behavior on the other hand is relevant to cognitive psychology because this is where the processed information appears. The effect of consciousness is determined by the outcome through a persons behavior. â€Å"Wundt and Titchener were aware of the subjectivity of consciousness, but they still believed that consciousness could be studied†(Pritchard, 2000). Behavior is said to be objective and not subjective. The universal laws of behavior can be determined through psychology because all living things are subject to experimentation of why they come up with such results.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cognitive psychology and behaviorism goes hand in hand because there are certain aspects that cannot be determined by one field alone. Behaviorism is seen through actions while cognitive deals with information processing. â€Å"Because of behaviorisms emphasis on the observable there were some things that they just didnt talk about. Memory, language, and other mental activities would not be discussed by behaviorists. At least they wouldnt be discussed as we would discuss them, with reference to mental events and thoughts that are unobservable by other people. They tried to explain these phenomenon by constructing theories involving biological drives and habits† (Pritchard, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although there are some arguments relating to behavior and cognitive psychology, since there are claims that Mental processes were considered habits that   were not connected to the brain, still Cognitive psychology diminishes the confusions as to why human come up with that action. There are interacting determinants between behavior and cognitive psychology. Through these field people learn that as a discipline, cognitive psychology is developed to bridge the gap between behaviorism and cognitive social psychology. Tracing the development of cognitive psychology, it developed mainly from Behavioral psychology because through observations and critical thinking, cognitive psychologist learn to investigate more about information processing. References Pritchard, Evan (2000) Attention and Memory Chapter 1 How Cognitive Psychology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Developed. An article about Cognitive Psychology from the winnipeg website.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved March 15, 2008 from: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~epritch1/amdvlop.htm

Essay --

During the nineteenth century, nationalism was the driving force behind the unification of Italy in 1861 and the creation of Germany as a modern nation in 1871. Nationalism had also proved a useful tool for encouraging the expansion of empire, as politicians sought to win over their constituents with the notion that it was the moral duty of western nations to civilize the rest of the world. Imperialism was also one of the four contributing factors to the cause of World War One. Although not all events that fall into the imperialistic category were about controlling another country, they contributed to the war, and imperialistic events were the foundation of the cause of World War One.The Indian Independence Movement began in 1857, and lasted until 1947. Before the beginning of the movement, India had never known political freedom. Foreign rulers had occupied the country for its' entire history. By the time the British took over the area, the natives of India had grown restless with h aving no say in any political decisions. This showed the British that the Indians were serious about achieving their freedom. During the 1900’s almost every part of Africa was a European colony. The native Africans began to protest for independence. They used a system of protests called Pan-Africanism. These brought worldwide attention to the independence of Africa from Europeans.Nationalism has had good and bad effects on major events throughout history. Some of the events that nationalism has affected would be World War 1, the Indian independence movement, and the African independence movement. Nationalism had a vital role to play in the build up in the World Was One, as different nations sought to impose their authority on the rest of the world. Na... ..., and promotes values that are the product of the African civilization and the struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism. Pan-Africanism can be seen as a product of the European slave trade. Enslaved Africans of diverse origins and their descendants found themselves embedded in a system of exploitation where their African origin became a sign of their servile status. Pan-Africanism set aside cultural differences, asserting the principality of these shared experiences to foster solidarity and resistance to exploitation. Initially anti-slavery and anti-colonial movements amongst black people of Africa and the Diaspora in the late nineteenth century, the aims of Pan-Africanism have evolved through the ensuing decades. Pan-Africanism has covered calls for African, nationalism, independence, political and economic cooperation, and historical and cultural awareness.

Interested in painting and sculpture, I finally chose interior architecture designer as my future career

Employment Status Report Goals and doctrine Interested in painting and sculpture, I eventually chose interior architecture interior decorator as my hereafter calling, for residential design involves both architectural aesthetics and practical value. A perfect design requires a comprehensive cognition in aesthetics and professional competency that involves high engineering ( Kadir,2009 ) . As mathematics and painting serves as basic accomplishments for interior architecture design, to heighten the proficiency in working with engineering serves as my short-run ends, which requires a uninterrupted pattern in utilizing in writing package such as Auto Desk 3D Max and Adobe Photoshop. I wish to hold on those accomplishments over the following 3 months. In footings of long-run ends, I wish to work in big design companies such as GHD and AXS Satow because of its good chances for development with original constructs in design. A contemplation of aesthetic and practical value in interior architecture design is my artistic doctrine. I believe that the design of interior ornaments and furniture must run into customer’s stuff and religious demands of the indoor environment. The artistic doctrine has been reflected in my experience of planing a nuptials room for Art Studio in Beijing. The infinite environment met the corresponding demand of clients with a contemplation of romantic ambiance despite a dissatisfaction with little points. When dissatisfaction arose, I would exemplify my artistic doctrine that all the designs work as a whole to make an expected consequence so that he eventually accepted my advice. Market Due to the huge economic potency of interior architecture design, the competition of the industry has become rather intense. Harmonizing to a survey made in 2011 byNew York Observer, the mean income of a junior interior architecture interior decorator in moderate-sized companies was approximately 0.56 million dollars a twelvemonth while a senior interior decorator received 1.2 million in norm ( Mark,2011 ) . In order to calculate out what sorts of architecture interior decorators were competitory, I had an interview with Liang Zheng, the HR of AIO ( Shanghai ) international landscape and architecture design company. He listed several of import makings and qualities in choosing a competent interior decorator, including a master’s grade, abroad instruction backgrounds and working experience in architecture design. In add-on, those with a good team-work spirit and communicative capacities would be more likely to be selected. To advance myself in confronting the ferocious competit ion, I should cultivate a good communicative accomplishments and team-work spirit. Skills and tools Working in an international architecture design company requires makings and professional accomplishments of high degree ( Frank,2004 ) . In add-on to a comprehensive cognition in architecture aesthetics, communicative capableness and good team-work spirit besides serve as of import portion to carry through my long-run professional ends. My current cognition in architecture aesthetics and in writing package is non sufficient for viing with other architecture interior decorator in big companies in which international communicating is rather frequent. Therefore I should be involved in diverseness preparation classs and English classs to heighten my communicative abilities. With those attempts, indispensable working experience can be added into my professional portfolio. Networking Networking plays an indispensable function in farther growing for architecture design companies, for the communicating of design constructs and updated engineerings helps to set up a long-run common good cooperation on a higher degree. Outstanding associations and diaries of interior architecture design serve as effectual medium for the communicating within the industry. Interior Architecture Design, a Santa Monica College award-winning plan located at the Academy Campus, focuses on heightening professional accomplishments in the local and international Architecture and Design Industry. In add-on, the A Interior Design Competition besides plays an of import portion for the uninterrupted development of architecture design. The award has been viewed as an index of perfect interior design and of import milepost in one’s calling. Provided with sole selling and communicating services to advance his proficiency, a victor will be popular among world-wide design oriented companies and involvement groups. Therefore I take an active portion in assorted competitions and plans of architecture design to accomplish the long-run end. The hereafter In the hereafter, I wish to work as a junior architecture interior decorator in PAL Design Consultants Ltd of China, for the company’s original construct in interior architecture design and favourable working environment. The company has created assorted interior architecture designs through the usage of advanced attacks to spacial organisation, stuffs and illuming with great aesthetic value. The laminitis of the company, T.K.Chu, is good known for his constructs of incorporating manner elements into classical designs. He has developed his ain aesthetic, the Art Deco that transforms authoritative spirits into geometric, in writing and rhythmic vision, which helps the planing merchandise addition agreat popularity. His ultimate end is to show the value of trade art that can non be reached under the aid of accurate calculations, for which I admire him a batch. In add-on, a favourable on the job environment makes the company more attractive. The staff of PAL Design Consultants Ltd comes from topographic points around the universe with assorted cultural backgrounds. The squad provides a balance of western expertness, cross-cultural experience and local penetration and the intertwining environment brings a wealth of creativeness and motive to the talented squad ( Roland,2003 ) . Bing an architecture interior decorator in PAL Design Consultants Ltd, I can turn and develop with superb interior decorators in a cheerful and lively, originative and harmonious civilization. With its original construct in planing the company will maintain endeavoring farther in front in a dynamic and extremely competitory marketD ( Rowland,2011 ) . To accomplish this long-run end, I must heighten my communicative capableness and a good team-work spirit in the hereafter. In add-on to the cultivation of the above communicative accomplishments, I will besides go on wor king on my proficient proficiency. BeginningsKadir.H. ( 2009 ) .The Integration of Interior Architecture with Innovative Design Approaches.US-China instruction reappraisal. ISSN 1548-6613.Vol.8.Mark.G. ( 2011 ) .Architecture Design Gains its Popularity.Architecture Design. New York Observer. Vol.48.Issue.4Frank.G.A. ( 2004 ) .Architecture Design and Assessment system.4.Roland. D. ( 2003 ) . Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23. 5.D. Rowland. ( 2011 ) .T.N. Howe: Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999, ISBN 0-521-00292-3

Lord of the Flies : Relationship Between Two Main Protagonists Essay

American president Franklin D. Roosevelt once said that â€Å"If civilization is to survive, we must cultivate the science of human relationships – the ability of all peoples, of all kinds, to live together, in the same world at peace. â€Å" This quotation fits very well in the novel Lord of the Flies written by William Golding in 1954. This story is about a group of young boys from British school, who found themselves on a tropical island after an airplane crash. This story shows how people can easily change when there are no laws or restrictions to prevent them from becoming wild and out of control and that the pure person’s character will come up in situation similar to this one. We can find many different characters amongst all the boys, but I will try to focus on characteristics of two main protagonists and analyze the relationship between them and also their attitude to other boys. I would like to bring you a brief summary of Lord of the Flies so my description of each protagonist is more understandable. In the middle of ragging war, a plane evacuating a group of schoolboys from Britain is shot down over a deserted tropical island. There is no one but young boys on the island, no adults, no authority and all of a sudden everything is upon them. There are older boys but majority of little ones or â€Å"littluns† as they start to call them. Boys will realize that they need some supervision, someone who will be in charge of them and who will be giving orders so they do not become savages. They agree to make elections and boy named Ralph is elected as a chief. He chooses another older boy named Jack to be his assistant because he is already leading his choir. Now it is obvious that there are two most important characters in the story – Ralph and Jack. We also get to meet one of older boys called Piggy, who has immediately became a target of ridicule because of his appearance. Piggy is fat and wears glasses, which makes him not acceptable for kids ´ games. However Ralph is always his friend and he protects him from those who laugh at him. Ralph’s main idea is to set a fire so they can be rescued and to build shelters. Group is agreed to maintain the fire all day long and every time there is guard duty consisted of two boys looking after the fire. As the story goes on boys become tired of their duties and they start looking for something that brings them more entertainment. Into this comes Jack who wants them to be hunters and hunt pigs that are on the Island. Most of the boys find this to be fun so they stop listening to orders and rather go with Jack to hunt. This is the moment where boys are separated into two groups according to their character. The incompatibilities of their temperament are growing much more from now on. Groups are being separated and Jack’s group grows in savagery. This finally culminates to full loss of control and these boys do what they want till the time they are rescued. As we can assume from previous paragraph Ralph is a boy with good character and he was always the one trying to prevent boys from becoming wild and from breaking the rules. He is also the most important protagonist in the story. He was chosen to be chief because of his natural talent of leadership, even though he sometimes also acts like a kid. As well as other boys he laughs at some boys. He even does pick on Piggy from time to time. Ralph realizes the importance of being rescued therefore most of his orders are similar to what and adult would decide to do. This is the reason why most of the boys rather join Jack, because soon after plane crash they found out that this is a great opportunity to have lots of fun when there is no â€Å"real† supervision of any adult person. Jack on the other hand is the one who offers them pure child ´s life full of games and adventure. He is also a natural leader and the fact that in the end of the story he makes everyone but Piggy and Ralph convert to his group is an ample proof of it. Unlike Ralph he is the leader of anarchy on the island. Even though he does not like to follow rules of any kind he does in the beginning. Jack simply wants to hunt and have a good time, not seeming to care about being rescued; he and his tribe are perfect examples of savagery. The relationship ship between Ralph and Jack is essential to what happens in Lord of the flies. Both movies that were made based on this novel describe this relationship in different way. The later movie especially makes it much tenser that how it actually is in the book and since I saw the movies first I was very surprised how nice these boys to each other are in the book. Things start off well at the first meeting. The group of boys vote for a chief who as I have already mentioned turns out to be Ralph and everyone breaks into applause. This of course makes Jack feel embarrassed that he has not been chosen to be chief and that his choir didn ´t support him. However Ralph at this moment says that his choir belongs to him of course. This is im plying that Ralph wants to make Jack be important. Jack does appreciate this because due to this act he does not have to feel ashamed anymore. This is where their friendship begins though it does not take too long to break down. Ralph and Jack go together on first exploration and they experience a lot of fun while walking up to the highest point to find out whether they are on the island or not. Their friendship is growing in strength. At this point they listen to each others’ ideas and suggestions and we can see mutual respect. When they find out that they really are on the island they go back to the rest of the group and Ralph tell them that they might be here for a long time before someone will come to rescue them. Here is Jack saying very important thing: â€Å"We’ve got to have rules and obey them. After all, we’re not savages. We’re English, and the English are best at everything. â€Å" This sentence proves that even Jack had rational thinking in the beginning and that he agrees with Ralph. Soon after Jack does first step that will lead to future disagreement followed by separation of groups. He persuades two boys who are on fire guard duty to come with him for hunting because he needs them. They go with him and the fire dies. Unfortunately at that moment ship goes by the island but there is no fire to attract its attention. Ralph rushes to the place of fire and finds out that boys are gone. When Jack with his hunters and dead pig comes back Ralph starts yelling at him and Jack is embarrassed again. Although he sees the mistake he has done and he publicly apologizes to him. Jack did not like the fact that Ralph was right and he starts to put together a bigger group of hunters where he is in the charge. The break down moment comes when Ralph calls together an assembly. He wants to discuss things that boys do wrong and give new rules. There has also appeared another problem – boys are afraid of a beast that they made up in their minds. They are afraid that this beast will hunt them down and kill them. Ralph claims that there is no such thing and everyone should get back to work and not only play games all the time. After this Jack stands up and shouts: â€Å"You are just giving orders that don’t make any sense! â€Å"(Golding, p. 93) Ralph is surprised by him and he tries to explain the importance of rules for being rescued. However Jack says: â€Å"Bollocks to the rules! We’re strong–we hunt! If there’s a beast, we’ll hunt it down! We’ll close in and beat and beat and beat–!† (Golding, p. 93) We can see sudden change in their relationship that was started by Jack. After a while there is another assembly, where Jack finally says: â€Å"I’m going off by myself. Ralph can catch his own pigs. Anyone who wants to hunt when I do can come too.† (Golding, p. 140) After this, boys start to split off. There is also nobody to keep the signal fire burn and the chance of rescue is therefore very low. Unfortunately for Ralph most of them are younger and do not feel any responsibility and their desire after adventure and killing beast leads them to Jack ´s side. In the end there is no one but Ralph and Piggy in Ralph ´s group. Now there is almost no relationship between two main protagonists. Ralph still wants to explain the need of being together and help each other but Jack hates him and his group often attacks the place where these two boys stay. Ralph and Piggy for the last time decide to go into their territory to explain that they have to act like grown-ups. Nobody wants to listen to them and they even throw down a piece of rock, which instantly kills Piggy. Ralph escapes and hides. He is being followed. Whole group was told by Jack that they have to kill him. Boys set grass and trees on fire to smoke him out and so Ralph runs all the way to the beach where he runs into naval officer, who is there to save them. The end of the story only shows that Ralph ´s orders had sense because it was the fire that attracted navy ´s attention. Jack was only jealous and he wanted to have his own group of people. For this reason he decided to offer them something that Ralph could not because he had the responsibility of an adult. Jack turned into savage while Ralph kept his rational thinking. Their relationship has completely turned from the start till the end and we had plenty of time to realize who the good one is and who the bad one is. ——————————————– [ 2 ]. GOLDING, William. Lord of the Flies. 1st edition. London : Faber and Faber, 1954. Fire on Mountain, p. 40.

Facts about the Importance of Graphene

Facts about the Importance of Graphene Graphene is a two-dimensional honeycomb arrangement of carbon atoms that is revolutionizing technology. Its discovery was so significant that it earned Russian scientists Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics. Here are some reasons why graphene is important. It Is a Two-Dimensional Material. Nearly every material that we encounter is three-dimensional. We are only just beginning to understand how the properties of a material are changed when it is made into a two-dimensional array. The characteristics of graphene are very different from those of graphite, which is the corresponding three-dimensional arrangement of carbon. Studying graphene helps us to predict how other materials might behave in two-dimensional form. Graphene Has the Best Electrical Conductivity of Any Material. Electricity flows very quickly through the simple honeycomb sheet. Most conductors we encounter are metals, yet graphene is based on carbon, a nonmetal. This allows for the  development of electricity to flow under conditions where we might not want a metal. What conditions would those be? We are only just beginning to answer that question! Graphene Can Be Used to Make Very Small Devices. Graphene conducts so much electricity in so small a space that it may be used to develop miniaturized super-fast computers and transistors. These devices should require a minuscule amount of power to support them. Graphene is flexible, strong and transparent, too. Opens Research into Relativistic Quantum Mechanics. Graphene can be used to test the predictions of quantum electrodynamics. This is a new area of research  since it hasnt been easy to find a material that displays Dirac particles. The best part is, graphene isnt some exotic material. Its something anyone can make! Graphene Facts The word graphene refers to a single-layer sheet of hexagonally-arranged carbon atoms. If the graphene is in another arrangement, its usually specified. For example, bilayer graphene and multilayer graphene are other forms the material can take.Just like diamond or graphite, graphene is an allotrope of carbon. Specifically, it is made of  sp2 bonded carbon atoms that have a molecule bond length of 0.142 nm between atoms.Three of graphenes most useful properties are that it is extremely strong (100 to 300 times stronger than steel), its conductive (best-known conductor of heat at room temperature, with an electrical current density 6 order of magnitude higher than copper), and its flexible.Graphene is the thinnest and lightest material known. A 1-square-meter sheet of graphene weighs a mere 0.0077 grams, yet is capable of supporting up to four kilograms of weight.A sheet of graphene is naturally transparent. Potential Uses of Graphene Scientists are only just beginning to explore the many possible uses of graphene. Some of the technology under development includes: Ultra-fast charging of batteries.Collection of radioactive waste for easier clean-up.Faster flash memory.Stronger and better-balanced tools and sporting equipment, such as  tennis racquets.Ultra-thin touchscreens  that can be pasted onto a non-breakable material.Graphene-based e-paper that can update with new information.Quick and efficient biosensor devices 200, to measure blood glucose, cholesterol, and possibly your DNAHeadphones with  phenomenal frequency response.Supercapacitors  that essentially make batteries obsolete.Novel waterproof coatings.Bendable batteries.Stronger and lighter aircraft and armor.Aiding tissue regeneration.Purifying salt water into drinking water.Bionic devices that can connect directly to your bodys neurons.

Free Essays on Wireless

Wireless computing is the topic of much conversation today. The concept has been around for some time now but has been mainly utilizing communication protocols that exist for voice based communication. It is not intended to replace wired data communication but instead to be utilized in areas that it would be otherwise impossible to communicate using wires. Only recently has the industry been taking steps to formulate a standard that is more suitable to data transmission. Some the problems to be overcome are: (1) Data Integrity - relatively error free transmission, (2) Speed - as close as possible to the speed of current wired networks, (3) Protection - making sure that the data now airborne is encoded and cannot be tapped by unwelcome receivers, (4) Compatibility - ensuring that the many protocols that sure to be created subscribe to a standard to allow inter-operability, (5) Environmentally safe - strengths of electromagnetic radiation must be kept within normal levels. In our study of the theories and implementation concerns of wireless computing, we found that it is being treated in an object oriented fashion. Scientists and development crews, including the IEEE, are doing their best to implement wireless connectivity without changing the existing computer hardware. As a result, a lot of focus is on using existing computer hardware and software to convert data to a format compatible with the new hardware which will be added to the computer using ports or PCMCIA connections that already exist. This means that wireless communication will be transparent to the user if and when wireless computing is utilized on a wide scale. Wireless computing applications covers three broad areas of computing today. Replacement of normal wired LAN's need to retain the speed and reliability found in wired LAN's. Creation of semipermanent LAN's for quick and easy setup without the need for running wires. Th... Free Essays on Wireless Free Essays on Wireless Wireless Technology applied to Computer Processing technology can provide many benefits to computing including faster response to queries, reduced time spent on paperwork, increased online time for users, just-in-time and real time control, tighter communications between clients and hosts. Wireless Computing is governed by two general forces: Technology, which provides a set of basic building blocks and User Applications, which determine a set of operations that must be carried out efficiently on demand. This paper summarizes technological changes that are underway and describes their impact on wireless computing development and implementation. It also describes the applications that influence the development and implementation of wireless computing and shows what current systems offer. Wireless computing is the topic of much conversation today. The concept has been around for some time now but has been mainly utilizing communication protocols that exist for voice-based communication. It is not intended to replace wired data communication but instead to be utilized in areas that it would be otherwise impossible to communicate using wires. Only recently has the industry been taking steps to formulate a standard that is more suitable to data transmission. Some the problems to be overcome are: Data Integrity - relatively error free transmission, Speed - as close as possible to the speed of current wired networks, Protection - making sure that the data now airborne is encoded and cannot be tapped by unwelcome receivers, Compatibility - ensuring that the many protocols that sure to be created subscribe to a standard to allow inter-operability, Environmentally safe - strengths of electromagnetic radiation must be kept within normal levels. In studies of the theories and i mplementation concerns of wireless computing, it was found that it is being treated in an object-oriented fashion. Scientists and development crews, including the IEEE, are ... Free Essays on Wireless Wireless computing is the topic of much conversation today. The concept has been around for some time now but has been mainly utilizing communication protocols that exist for voice based communication. It is not intended to replace wired data communication but instead to be utilized in areas that it would be otherwise impossible to communicate using wires. Only recently has the industry been taking steps to formulate a standard that is more suitable to data transmission. Some the problems to be overcome are: (1) Data Integrity - relatively error free transmission, (2) Speed - as close as possible to the speed of current wired networks, (3) Protection - making sure that the data now airborne is encoded and cannot be tapped by unwelcome receivers, (4) Compatibility - ensuring that the many protocols that sure to be created subscribe to a standard to allow inter-operability, (5) Environmentally safe - strengths of electromagnetic radiation must be kept within normal levels. In our study of the theories and implementation concerns of wireless computing, we found that it is being treated in an object oriented fashion. Scientists and development crews, including the IEEE, are doing their best to implement wireless connectivity without changing the existing computer hardware. As a result, a lot of focus is on using existing computer hardware and software to convert data to a format compatible with the new hardware which will be added to the computer using ports or PCMCIA connections that already exist. This means that wireless communication will be transparent to the user if and when wireless computing is utilized on a wide scale. Wireless computing applications covers three broad areas of computing today. Replacement of normal wired LAN's need to retain the speed and reliability found in wired LAN's. Creation of semipermanent LAN's for quick and easy setup without the need for running wires. Th...

Mark Twains Two Ways of Seeing a River Reading Quiz

Mark Twains Two Ways of Seeing a River Reading Quiz Two Ways of Seeing a River is an excerpt from the end of Chapter Nine of Mark Twains autobiographical work Life on the Mississippi, published in 1883. The memoir recounts his early days as a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi and then a trip down the river much later in life from St. Louis to New Orleans. Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) is regarded as a masterpiece and was the first piece of American literature to tell the story in colloquial, everyday language. After reading the essay, take this short quiz, and then compare your responses with the answers at the bottom of the page. In the opening sentence of Two Ways of Seeing a River, Twain introduces a metaphor, comparing the Mississippi River to:(A) a snake(B) a language(C) something wet(D) a beautiful woman with a deadly disease(E) the devils highwayIn the first paragraph, Twain uses the technique of repeating key words to emphasize his main point. What is this repeated line?(A) The majestic river!(B) I had made a valuable acquisition.(C) I still keep in mind a wonderful sunset.(D) I had lost something.(E) All the grace, the beauty, the poetry.The detailed description that Twain provides in the first paragraph is recalled from whose point of view?(A) an experienced steamboat captain(B) a small child(C) a beautiful woman with a deadly disease(D) Huckleberry Finn(E) Mark Twain himself, when he was an inexperienced steamboat pilotIn the first paragraph, Twain describes the river as having a ruddy flush. Define the adjective ruddy.(A) crude, rough, unfinished condition(B) having a sturdy build or strong constit ution(C) inspiring pity or compassion(D) reddish, rosy(E) neat and orderly How are Twains comments on the sunset scene in the second paragraph different from his descriptions of it in the first paragraph?(A) The experienced pilot is now able to read the river rather than marvel at its beauty.(B) The older man has grown bored with life on the river and simply wants to return home.(C) The river looks strikingly different at sunset from the way it appears at dawn.(D) The river is suffering as a result of pollution and physical decay.(E) The older and wiser man perceives the true beauty of the river in ways that the younger man would probably make fun of.In paragraph two, Twain uses which figure of speech in the line concerning the rivers face?(A) mixed metaphor(B) oxymoron(C) personification(D) epiphora(E) euphemismIn the final paragraph, Twain raises questions in regard to the way that a doctor might examine the face of a beautiful woman. This passage is an example of what technique?(A) wandering away from the subject(B) drawing an analogy(C) making a transit ion to an entirely new topic(D) deliberate word-for-word repetition to achieve emphasis(E) anti-climax ANSWERS:1. B; 2. D; 3. E; 4. D; 5. A; 6. C; 7. B.

German Jewish Immigration to the USA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

German Jewish Immigration to the USA - Essay Example Since he was guided not by principles but by expediency, he was able upon occasion to moderate his tactics, if not his Jewish policy, when diplomatic or economic considerations made it advisable to do so. Von Hindenburg, the aged president; von Neurath, the Foreign Minister; and Dr. Schacht, the president of the Reichsbank and later Minister of Economics, could occasionally win some concessions. But then came Hitler's evil spirits, such as the demonic Dr. Joseph Goebbels, his Minister of Propaganda; the sadist Julius Streicher, his pornographer; and the enemy of mankind, Heinrich Himmler, his executioner. All of these men served to fan the flame of his hatred. The baseness and the villainy, the lying and deception which were concentrated upon the Jews beggar description. Never was so intense and persistent a drumfire directed towards the destruction of a mighty army as these strategists found it necessary to use in order to make it impossible for 550,000 Jews to exist in the midst of 65,000,000 Germans. "Even 'Aryan' children were stirred to spy upon Jews and Christian non-Aryans and to attack them, and to incite their own parents to extirpate the Jews altogether." From this specimen the world might have learned whither the destructive spirit of the Nazis was leading, but they were gullible and were persuaded that this treatment of the Jews was solely a matter of internal German policy. It was fatal to the world at large (and to the Jews) that the world relied upon the promises of the Reich Chancellor and Reich Leader, of which he kept not one, and did not rather refer to the conclusions of his Mein Kampf, in which the true nature of the revolutionary Hitler was expressed. (Hans W. Gatzke, 1973) The overall aim of Nazi policy in the 1930s was to pressure Jews to leave Germany, but there was no unanimity in the party on how this was to be accomplished. One faction, largely concentrated in the SA and typified by the fanatical Nuremberg Gauleiter Julius Streicher (1885-1946), editor of the bi-weekly anti-Semitic tabloid, Der Strmer, pressed for violent methods to oust the Jews from German society. Almost immediately after Hitler became chancellor, SA-sponsored street terror and hooliganism began, with Jews as primary targets. It was mainly to appease the disgruntled SA militants that Hitler authorized the national boycott against Jewish-owned stores, lawyers, and physicians in April 1933. Streicher was appointed by Hitler to head the committee planning the nationwide boycott, the announced purpose of which was to retaliate against Jewish-sponsored boycotts of German goods abroad. After the end of the official boycott physical assaults against individual Jews and Jewish business es continued sporadically without official sanction. Perpetrators, however, almost always escaped arrest or prosecution. (Hans W. Gatzke, 1973) Some Nazis criticized the SA's campaign of physical violence, not on humanitarian grounds, to be sure, but because it undermined discipline and order, caused property damage, provoked Western charges of human rights abuses, invited retaliatory measures, and seemed an ineffective and counterproductive way of ridding Germany of its Jewish population. Hjalmar Schacht and later HermannGring in his capacity as chief of the Four-Year Plan deplored the adverse impact on the German economy of vandalism

Anthony Giddens Theory of Structuration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Anthony Giddens Theory of Structuration - Essay Example It is through this theory that the field of sociology can connect human behavior and it's influence on the rules of daily living, thinking and our view of the outside world. His introduction of 'third way' between voluntarism and determinism, is important to the notion of what defines strategic choice. Anthony Giddens' contribution to social theory is widely debated. Some argue that his thinking has been too eclectic, eschewing grand theoretical constructs for a collection of ideas with little more than descriptive value. But this thinking is the result of not understanding Giddens' work. Indeed, his career over the years has contributed to sociology as he shifted from interpretations of classical social theory and the debunking of functionalism and positivism to the elaboration of a set of ideas that attempts to bridge the gap between agency and structure. Giddens' explains: "Structure enters into the explanation of action in a dual way: as the medium of its production and at the same time as its outcome in the reproduction of social forms. Thus the study of social reproduction cannot be conceived as the aggregation of numerous 'productive acts', which tends to be the conclusion that voluntaristic forms of social theory lead to; nor, on the other hand, can the production of action, as a rationalized accomplishment, be treated as merely 'structurally determined'" (Giddens 1977) Giddens' theory, instead of looking for reasons to excuse or belie agency mistake, actually promotes respect for competent human agency. His work is indeed prominent for methodology and is multi-level, recognising the embeddedness of human actors in wider society, all of which speaks to the very foundations of sociology. Moreover, he offers extensive and impressive coverage of theory to self-reflexivity, modernity and politics, placing them all within the illuminating framework of a historical context thus adding a new layer to the world of sociology. Giddens' writing has always embodied a political and ethical position, one that has changed considerably over the years and is best understood through the social context in which it was written. Giddens' work in the 1970s attempted to marry liberalism and socialism, but, following the collapse of Communism in the 1990 East-European revolutions, his worldview became liberal rather than socialist, and his later work on reflexivity and t he 'Third Way' embodies this. Much like the human condition embraced and ever changing in a sociological context, Gidden's works contribute by allowing us to note change, appreciate it and most importantly, adjust to it. Others, however, point to his very work of structuration as a major theoretical contribution to sociological thinking. In his book New Rules of Sociological Method (1976), Giddens argued that agency produces structure and that structure is constituted of rules and resources by which that self-same agency is recreated. That is to say, Giddens wrote that the epistemology of sociological research was a "double hermeneutic" in which theory offered an explanation for the phenomena of everyday life and everyday life provided a means by which theory could be understood. In other words, the two acted in a dialectical relationship to each other. Early on in his

Diversity in the Workplace Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Diversity in the Workplace - Coursework Example In addition to these groups of people, diversity also focuses on people belonging to other categories like, people having different educational background, different tenure with the company, different functional backgrounds and the resulting diversity from the mergers and acquisitions activity of organizations. Affirmative action is concerned with people who are experiencing issues related to discrimination based on color, ethnic groups, etc (Kravitz, 2008, p. 175). However, managing diversity is more related to the desire of the manager of a company to explore the potentials present in all the employees. Thus, affirmative action is only a means of attaining diversity in an organization through the implementation of various policies and diversity is a broader concept which is the end result of affirmative action. Answer 2: Cultural diversity in workforce mainly refers to the various types of people that work in an organization and can be differentiated on the basis of their race, gen der and ethnicity. In a culturally diverse workforce one can find people who have different cultural values (Pride, Hughes, & Kapoor, 2011, p. 253). According to Esty, Griffin & Hirsch (1995), they have suggested ten different dimensions of diversity which are thought to be the critical in a workplace. They are: 1) Sexual Orientation, 2) Class, 3) Ethnicity, 4) Age, 5) Race, 6) Hierarchy or Status, 7) Gender, 8) Religion, 9) Physical ability or disability, and 10) Family situation. Hence, people working in a workplace can be differentiated based on any of these cultural dimensions. Organizations having culturally diverse workforce are characterized of having people who have different cultural values and varies with respect to the dimensions mentioned above. Answer3: Managing a diverse workforce is not an easy task and is associated with many challenges to be faced by the leaders in an organization. Diversity management is not restricted to acknowledging the differences that exist be tween people working in an organization. It also involves the recognition of values associated with such differences between people, promoting inclusiveness and combating discrimination. The leaders of an organization managing a diverse workforce may also face the challenge of losing the personnel or reduction in work productivity because of discrimination, prejudice, legal actions and complaints against the organization. In addition to this, negative behaviors or attitudes can prove to be barriers for an organization because this can result in having a negative impact on the working relationships between the employees and reduce the work productivity and morale of the people. The negative behaviors or attitudes that have been referred here include stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination and it should not be utilized by the company management while performing activities like retention, hiring, and termination of employees. Answer4: Increasing diversity in the workforce of an org anization needs implementation of an effective diversification strategy. By following the four steps mentioned below it is possible to increase diversity in the companies. Step 1: Explaining diversity for the company: The first step is to define and explain what diversification implies to the company as a whole. It is an important step to initiate diversity because the term diversity carries different meaning for different people in the organization.

Byzantine Empire Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Byzantine Empire - Essay Example These books and codes were largely accepted in the East but failed to make substantial impact in the west and thus contributed to the divide which has started to rise. Justinian ambitiously tried to reconquer all the Western lands that Rome had lost to the barbarians. Justinian became the emperor in 527 and ruled until 565 and proved him to be an able ruler and he was in fact responsible for the rise of the Byzantine Empire and gave Eastern Rome a separate identity. It was his great reign which is considered to be the birth of the Byzantine Empire. Justinian successfully reconquered much of the territory that had fallen into barbarian hands. In the first phase of his projects, the entire north coast of Africa fell under Byzantine rule. Next he fought the Ostrogoths in Italy. But in 18 years of siege and counter-siege (535-553), Rome changed hands six times which means he stabilized the Eastern part but the Western part was falling which ultimately resulted in the lost of Roman identi ty and birth of the Byzantine Empire. The New Groups The wars were taking place and the barbarians were becoming powerful but at the same time new groups were also rising which included the Christians and the Muslims. The Christian priests were spreading the faith among the masses and Christianity was made the official region of the empire which meant that the Roman temples and Oracles were no more the centers of religion and the holy was now redefined and Churches were the place of worship now. Byzantium Defense Constantinople, the Byzantine capital city was the most important factor in the increasing the strength of the Empire since it was naturally protected against the invaders and could not be conquered with ease no matter how strong and advanced the invading army was. The high... Byzantine Empire Through the 4th century while the Roman Empire was still united there were two capitals following the political will of the same emperor. There was a split in the empire but the two states were not antagonistic to each other since they were a single empire on technical grounds but the series of events that took place in the 5th century lead to the collapse of the Western part while the Eastern part survived but was reduced to a medium sized empire which was more akin to the Persia than to Gaul. The East Held-back The diplomatic and political distances between the two parts of the empire were becoming more and more and the administrative and infrastructure crises in addition to the wars fueled the deteriorating situation. The war with the Visigoths was fought alone by the western wing of the empire and eastern wing instead of sending troops to defend the western borders strengthened its own capital. The infrastructure which was decaying on the western fronts was not repaired by the ea stern richer wing because they were no more concerned about the bridge between the two wings which was holding them together. Role of Justinian Emperor Justinian of the east is well-known for his efforts for driving away the barbarians and restoring glory to the Roman Empire. Another great effort by Justinian was the legislative initiatives he took. Thus the historians have legitimately renamed the Eastern Rome as Byzantine Empire because the Roman identity no more existed.

Introduction to Approaches in Psychology Essay 1

Introduction to Approaches in Psychology 1 - Essay Example Pavlov who trained dogs to salivate in response to two stimuli, noise or light, and food or a sour solution. John B. Watson, considered as the father of behaviourism, conducted an experiment with an 11-month-old child, Albert. He presented the child with a loud frightening bang and a rat at the same time. After six or seven repetitions of the noise and rat together over a week, the child became afraid of the rat, which he was not earlier. 1. Conditioned fear and anxiety – the phobias that many people experience are due to conditioning. We can consider an example of a child and his father travelling in a plane. The father jokes about how the plane can crash. Since he finds it very funny, he decides to say it whenever they travel in a plane. Many years later, even though the child has grown up, he is afraid to travel in a plane. Conditioning has caused the fear. 2. Advertising – In a beer advertisement featuring a young attractive woman wearing a bikini, the woman (US-unconditioned stimulus) evokes a mildly aroused feeling (UR-unconditioned response) in most men. The beer is associated with the classic conditioning effect. (Classical Conditioning, 1996.) Waschulewski-Floruss H, Miltner W, 1994, investigated whether experimental pain responses can be conditioned using auditory stimuli in a differential trace conditioning paradigm in 16 healthy subjects. An intracutaneous electrical stimulus applied to the left middle-finger (10 ms duration) was the UCS. Tones of 1000 and 1400 Hz were used as CS+ and CS-, respectively. A trace conditioning paradigm was used with an 800 ms interval between CS and UCS. Twenty nine electrode sites recorded somatosensory event related potentials (SEP) and auditory event related potentials (AEP). Subjective pain reports were noted. The results revealed significant differences of the subjective sensations between the CS+ and CS-, but not in the amplitudes and latencies of the P50, N100, P200, and P300 AEP

Cancer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 7

Cancer - Essay Example Neurologic examination is where the doctor examines the patient for attentiveness, strength of the muscles and coordination, any spontaneous effect and reaction to pain. The doctor also conducts an examination of the eyes to identify any swelling of the nerve connecting the brain and the eye which might have been caused by the pressure inserted by the tumor. With CT scan, an X-ray is conducted where the results are observed from a computer connected to the x-ray machine which clearly shows the position and the size of the tumors. MRI is where a high magnetic material is connected to a computer which shows detailed and clear pictures of the body that is provided by the means of a special dye which makes different tissues distinct. The pictures can be printed out (Potts & Mandleco, 2012). The primary level of health care is the first step where patients are exposed to health care systems which are normally the smaller health care facilities like the dispensaries serving the local community. Mostly, this unit involves simple diagnostic measures, preventive and curative where in-patients services are rare. Nurses are mostly found in this stage that will refer the patient to a district hospital which provides better services and in-patients services. The nurse examines the general sciences and symptoms of illness from the patient who then refers the patient for further treatment from the district level because the facility has no the necessary machines and equipment to examine the patient further (Potts & Mandleco 2012).

Introduction to Approaches in Psychology Essay 1

Introduction to Approaches in Psychology 1 - Essay Example Pavlov who trained dogs to salivate in response to two stimuli, noise or light, and food or a sour solution. John B. Watson, considered as the father of behaviourism, conducted an experiment with an 11-month-old child, Albert. He presented the child with a loud frightening bang and a rat at the same time. After six or seven repetitions of the noise and rat together over a week, the child became afraid of the rat, which he was not earlier. 1. Conditioned fear and anxiety – the phobias that many people experience are due to conditioning. We can consider an example of a child and his father travelling in a plane. The father jokes about how the plane can crash. Since he finds it very funny, he decides to say it whenever they travel in a plane. Many years later, even though the child has grown up, he is afraid to travel in a plane. Conditioning has caused the fear. 2. Advertising – In a beer advertisement featuring a young attractive woman wearing a bikini, the woman (US-unconditioned stimulus) evokes a mildly aroused feeling (UR-unconditioned response) in most men. The beer is associated with the classic conditioning effect. (Classical Conditioning, 1996.) Waschulewski-Floruss H, Miltner W, 1994, investigated whether experimental pain responses can be conditioned using auditory stimuli in a differential trace conditioning paradigm in 16 healthy subjects. An intracutaneous electrical stimulus applied to the left middle-finger (10 ms duration) was the UCS. Tones of 1000 and 1400 Hz were used as CS+ and CS-, respectively. A trace conditioning paradigm was used with an 800 ms interval between CS and UCS. Twenty nine electrode sites recorded somatosensory event related potentials (SEP) and auditory event related potentials (AEP). Subjective pain reports were noted. The results revealed significant differences of the subjective sensations between the CS+ and CS-, but not in the amplitudes and latencies of the P50, N100, P200, and P300 AEP

Kellogg Company Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Kellogg Company - Coursework Example This paper examines business strategy of Kellogg’s Company by taking into account its strategic plan, an evaluation of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats and the comparison of the company with other companies in terms of strategic planning. Overview of Kellogg Company Kellogg Company is currently the leading producer of cereal and convenience foods such as cookies, cereal bars, frozen waffles, meat alternatives, pastries, piecrusts, and ice cream cones. The products of Kellogg are manufactured in more than seventeen (70) countries and marketed in more than one hundred and eighty countries (180) around the world (Kellogg Company, 2010). Strategic Planning Strategic planning refers to the process of developing a mission and long-range objectives and how such objectives will be accomplished. Strategic plans are often developed for five years but they are regularly reviewed and revised annually to achieve the laid down objectives for five years (Simerson, 2011:1 35). Strategic planning process entails the developing of mission, analyzing the environment, setting objectives, developing strategies, implementing, and controlling the strategies (Lussier, 2011:128). Strategic planning can help companies to identify products that are suited to the needs, objectives, and resources of the firm and in the development of plans for introduction of new products in the market. Despite the positive contribution of strategic planning in organizational planning, it has some problems. One of the problems associated with strategic planning is the emphasis of quantity instead of quality. Most strategic plans stress on the achievement of quantitative results while ignoring or paying less attention to quality (Botten, 2009). The second problem of strategic planning is the failure or neglect in the analysis of internal and external environment. Another problem that is associated with strategic planning is the implementation of the goals and strategies as outline d in the vision, mission, and goals of organization (2008). Although companies often do strategic planning, its successful implementation is an arduous task. Financial implications are another problem associated with strategic planning. The cost needed to implement strategic plans adds more burden to organizations. Failure by companies to allocate sufficient resources towards the implementation of strategic plans can jeopardize the whole process (Simerson, 2011). Tesco Company was also faced with strategic planning problems. Tesco is one of the largest food retailers in the world with United Kingdom as its dominant market. The company developed a strategic plan and it has yielded results for the firm. Strategic planning has brought fortunes to the company by successfully engaging in branding and effective service delivery to customers (Cavusgil, Knight & Riesenberger, 2008). Through effective strategic planning, Tesco has fostered and established brand identity and awareness through consumer experience and brand extension approaches. Strategic planning has enabled Tesco to compete with other companies in food retail sectors and to adapt to various business environments (Needham, 2009). Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Growth –Share Matrix Due to increase in competition and need for market share expansion, companies

Analysis of Toyota’s Marketing Strategy Essay Example for Free

Analysis of Toyota’s Marketing Strategy Essay Surendra Bhandari1 [available at: http://papers. ssrn. com/sol3/papers. cfm? abstract_id=1624068 ] Abstract Toyota was established in 1937 in Japan. First time it introduced its product Corona in the US in 1965. By the 70’s, Toyota was the best-selling import brand in the US. During the 80’s, it started manufacturing vehicles in the US. In 2006, it had globally become the second largest car seller and third largest car sellers in the US having more than fifteen percent market share. It is estimated that by 2008 it is going to be the number one car producer and seller both in the US and across the world. This profound success of Toyota is associated with its most proficient market strategy. The case of Toyota notably proves that how important is market strategy in the life of a company to be a market leader. 1. Mission Toyota’s mission statement is as follows: â€Å"To sustain sustainable growth by providing the best customer experience and dealer support. † (Toyota, 2007) Customer satisfaction is the driving force for Toyota, which inspires it to provide the highest quality products and services. â€Å"Kaizen† is a word that Toyota upholds, which means â€Å"continuous improvement† of its technology, products, and services. In short, Kaizen for customer satisfaction is Toyota’s mission. Toyota further explains its mission as follows: 1 Dr. Bhandari can be contacted at: [emailprotected] com â€Å"Around here our values are just like yours. We are hard working. We are active in community. We are creating jobs. We celebrate our diversity. We are building cleaner greener cars. And this is just the beginning. † (Toyota, 2007) 2. Distinctive Competencies Among others, three distinctive competencies of Toyota are remarkable. These distinctive competencies appeal the consumers, build trust with them, and make them satisfied. These competencies are as follows: i. Popular Economy Car: Toyota is best known for ‘popular economy car’. It has successfully branded the concept of ‘popular economy car’, by producing cars matching to the concept. It has garnered its success by selling the concept to the consumer. It has also become profoundly successful in segmenting, targeting, and positioning. As a result, based on the pricing reports generated by over ten million visitors, out of top ten cars, three are Toyotas – Toyota Camry (No. 2), Toyota Corolla (No. 4), and Toyota Avalon (No. 8). (Kelly Blue Book, 2007) It produces eight varieties of cars. Among them, the prices for the four varieties cars range 10,000. 00 US $, three varieties range 15,000. 00 US $, and one variety ranges slightly over 20,000. 00 US $. ii. Cutting-edge Technology: Toyota simply did not stop to the concept of ‘popular economy car’. This concept could have easily turned into product maturity and decline. But Toyota continuously engaged in improving technology – design, looks, comfort, fuel efficiency, environmental friendliness, and other technical improvements. For example, Toyota Corolla was first introduced in Japan in 1966 and in the US in 1968 as a first generation Toyota Corolla. Since then roughly in every three years it is being developed and marketed in a new model. By 2006, tenth generation of Toyota Corolla was already launched with significant technological improvements. Toyota’s hybrid cars can be taken as another example. It started producing hybrid cars in 1995 however till 1999 Japan was 1 the only market for its hybrid cars. Coming to 2005, it became successful to capture a large chunk of US market. Today, it is selling almost seventy five percent of its hybrid cars alone in the US market. iii. Low Operating Cost: Why consumers purchase Toyota? The simple answer is that Toyota’s cars are distinctive with the properties of low operating cost. For example, a survey carried out by Toplin Strategy Group in 2007 has revealed that 73% of Prius owners had bought Toyota Prius because of financial incentive to purchase the vehicle such as lower sticker price or lower operating cost than other choices. (Marketing Green, 2007) Similarly, based on 45% highway driving and 55% city driving with annual 15,000 miles Toyota Prius has been proved to be the most fuel efficient car than any of its competitors such as Honda Civic Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Lexus GS 450. (Fuel Economy, 2008). 3. Trends / Conditions Among many other factors, demand for energy efficient and greener cars, demand for low operating cost, and demand for high level of safety and comfort are the most significant factors that are influencing the trends and conditions of automobile marketplace. Today’s automobile sector can be best described as one of the sectors that are trying utmost to respond these important marketplace demands. Based on these demands, there is both good and bad news for the auto industry, including for Toyota. Good news is that there is surprisingly robust vehicle sale in the market. The bad news is that some of the leading automakers are shedding thousands more jobs. Some of the automakers are also projecting downward market trends. These trends are important because, automobiles are responsible for 13. 3 million US jobs, and US $ 675 billion revenue in the US economy. 2 On a year-on-year basis, Toyota sales has surged 10. 5%, General Motors Corp. has showed a year-on-year improvement posting 12. 1% sales gain, and Chrysler has taken a 15% year-on-year sales dive, whereas Ford Motor Co. has stayed mostly flat, down 0. 5%. In terms of global sales, Toyota is in second position following GM. In terms of sales in the US market, Toyota is in third position having 14. 9% of market shares in 2006. Union of concerned scientists in their 2007 report state that Toyota has regained second place overall in the environmental rankings as well and is the only automaker to make consistent improvements on its global warming score since 2001. Toyota has the best global warming performance in six out of ten classes and better than average performance in the rest. If past trends continue, Toyota may overtake Honda’s global warming score within two years. Doing so will require continued investment in hybrids. Globally, 53 millions new cars are sold in 2007. Out of them, 15. 9 millions are sold alone in the US. In 2007, around the world, it is estimated that there will be 806 million cars and light trucks on the road, out of them 244 million will be in operation in the US alone. Currently, these vehicles burn nearly 260 billion gallons of fuel yearly and by 2020, the number of cars and light trucks is estimated to reach above 1 billion. The years of 2004 through 2007 will long be remembered as a pivotal period in the automobile industry as during this period gasoline prices started a sea change among US consumers that is finally creating a significant demand for fuel efficient vehicles. As a result, this has lead to the phenomenal demand for Toyota’s Prius hybrid car. Responding to the demands of consumers Toyota has expanded its investments in Georgetown, Kentucky plant to enable to manufacture 48,000 hybrid cars yearly. Ford launched its first hybrids, and other carmakers, including GM, were greatly encouraged in their own efforts to bring more hybrids to the market. However, response to hybrids from U. S. makers has been lukewarm at best. Consumers 3 generally aren’t as impressed with U. S. hybrid technology as they are with that of Toyota models. In short, while the US based Big Three struggle, Toyota is being more strategic. It has increased its capacity to manufacture over 1. 5 million vehicles yearly in North America. On a global scale, the company plans to sell 10. 4 million vehicles by 2009, up from 8. 8 million in 2006. The big news is that Toyota is most likely surpassing GM in global sales by 2008, making Toyota the world’s largest carmaker. 4. Organizational Objectives Toyota has set seven fundamental objectives. Among them, to dedicate in providing clean and safe products and enhance the quality of life everywhere through better production and services is the main objective of Toyota. Similarly, its other objectives are: to honor the law, language and culture of every nation with fair corporate activities; contribute to economic and social development of communities around the world through corporate activities; create and develop advanced technologies and provide outstanding products and services to customers; foster individual’s creativity and teamwork value; pursue growth through innovative management; and work with business partners for mutual benefits. To achieve these objectives and their effective implementation, it has clearly set fourteen principles that are widely considered as Toyota’s Ways. Based on these principles, Toyota takes management decisions on a long-term philosophy, even at the expenses of a short-term financial goal. It believes in a continuous process flow to bring problems to the surface, uses visual control so that no problems are hidden, uses pull system to avoid overproduction, and works like tortoise and not the hare. It standardizes the tasks and processes as the foundation for continuous improvement and empowers employees by which it further enhances its ability to use only reliable and thoroughly tested technology that serves the customers. 4. Similarly, its organizational objectives are further substantiated by its idea of developing exceptional people and teams who follow the philosophy of Toyota, respect the network of partners and suppliers, and learn from the practices. It believes in making decisions slowly by consensus thoroughly considering all options and once the decisions are taken, it implements the decisions rapidly. On top of that, by becoming a learning organization through relentless reflection and continuous improvement of its products and services, Toyota can be exemplified as a case that has achieved its organizational objectives successfully. 5. Strategic Business Unit Toyota offers energy efficient, green, and popular economy cars, SUVs/Vans, hybrids, and light trucks with safety and comfort measures in place. It produces more than two dozen varieties of products. All of its products are globally very popular. Its products are sold in over 200 countries across the globe. On top of that, the US is the biggest market for Toyota. For example, till 2006 it had sold more than 7 million Toyota Corollas alone in the US. In the financial year 2006-07, in consolidated terms, it sold its products of 226. 06 billion US $ (23,948. 00 billion yen) and earned net income of 15. 17 billion US $ (1,644. 0 billion yen). (Toyota, 2006) In 2006, Toyota was engaged in a variety of projects designed to solidify its foundations while continuing to grow. On the product front besides its two dozen already launched products, Lexus has launched its new flagship model, the LS, and the new global Camry went on sale. In manufacturing, several new projects were started around the world. In May 2006, manufacturing of the Camry began in Guangzhou, China, while in the United States, the Kentucky plant, which in October 2006 celebrated 20 years of production, has started manufacturing the first Toyota hybrid vehicle to be made in North America, the Camry Hybrid. In November 2006, the Texas plant began producing the new Tundra truck, a key vehicle in Toyota’s North American lineup. 5 In Japan, Toyota Motor Kyushu, Inc. has begun full-scale operations at its engine factory, and Toyota Motor Tohoku Co. , Ltd. has increased its manufacturing capacity. In human resources development sector, following the establishment of the Asia Pacific Global Production Center in Thailand in August 2005, Toyota has established the North American Production Center in the U. S. in February 2006, and the European Global Production Center in the United Kingdom in March 2006. Established as branches of the Global Production Center in Japan, these were created to spread Toyota’s manufacturing knowledge and skills throughout the world in pace with the rapid growth of Toyota’s overseas manufacturing. In RD side, Toyota has focused its efforts on three key areas: environment, safety, and energy. It has made a special effort in the area of the environment by expanding its lineup of hybrid vehicles, and has worked on RD relating to plug-in hybrid. In addition, as part of Toyota’s efforts to respond to the diversification of energy, in 2007 Toyota has introduced a flex fuel vehicle in the Brazilian market that will run on 100% bio-ethanol fuel. From this point on, based on the philosophy of providing â€Å"the right car, in the right place, at the right time,† and in accordance with the infrastructure and customer needs of each region, Toyota is striving for promoting efforts to develop environmentally friendly technology and vehicles. 6. Boston Consulting Group Matrix Based on the Boston Matrix, the market situation of Toyota is Healthy. To support this statement, three products are chosen here – Camry, Prius, Corolla. These all fall into the category of Star as they are holding high market share and high market growth. All these three products are well established and the growth is exciting. These are creating fantastic opportunities. The only challenge is Toyota needs to maintain its Stars. And, it seems that for at least a couple of years Toyota will maintain its Stars. 6 Toyota Corolla: It is a compact car, very popular throughout the world since it was first introduced in 1966. In 1997 it became the bestselling car in the world; in 2004 it was the number one selling car in the US in its segment with over 30 million sold as of 2007. In the US alone, more than 7 million Toyota Corolla cars have been sold. Over the past 40 years, one Toyota Corolla car has been sold on average every 40 seconds. Today, it is manufactured in 16 countries in the world. It has been almost steadfast in face-lifting each generation after two years, and replacing it with an all-new model every four year. As a result, it has brought in market its 10th generation model in 2006 in Japan and has been introduced to the US market since October 2007. This product strategy of Toyota Corolla has helped it to be continuously in the Star quadruple. Toyota Camry: It is a mid-size car manufactured in the US, Australia, China, and Japan. In some markets, the top range Camry models are seen as executive cars. The Camry has been the bestselling car in the US, its largest consumer market, for nine of the last ten years starting in 1997, with the only exception in 2001. The first generation Camry was introduced in 1983 and in 2007 the sixth generation Camry has been introduced. The sixth-generation Toyota Camry is the first generation in which it has been available as a gasoline/electric hybrid. EPA fuel economy estimates for the 2007 Toyota Camry Hybrid 38 MPG in city and 40 MPG on highway. Toyota Prius: It is a hybrid electric vehicle and one of the first such vehicles to be massproduced and marketed. The Prius first went on sale in Japan in 1997, and worldwide in 2001. By the end of 2003, nearly 160,000 units had been produced for sale in Japan, Europe, and North America. The Prius has won several awards, including the Car of the Year Japan in 1997/98, the North American Car of the Year 2004, and the European Car of the Year 2005. EPA has recently revised environmental standards and the Prius 2007 has been acknowledged as the most fuel efficient car sold in the US. Its market share in the US is growing each year. In 7 2000, Prius market share in the US was very negligible but by 2005 out of its total sale the US alone had consumed about seventy percent. 7. Organizational Strategy for Growth Toyota has already got market over 200 countries across the globe. Only in 2006, it sold 8. 52 million of its products and has planned to be a number one car producing and selling company by 2008. This ambitious strategy of market penetration is associated with its proficient demographic and psychographic segmentation and targeting. It has successfully got high level of positioning in the mind of the consumers with its brand and distinctive competencies as discussed above disseminating through integrated market communication (IMC) techniques. Toyota has diversified its product with a brand of right car in the right place. For example, it has introduced a flex fuel vehicle in the Brazilian market that will run on 100% bio-ethanol fuel. It has introduced hybrid electric car (Prius) mostly for the market in the US, Japan, and EU. On top of that in each two year it improves looking of its product and in each four year transforms model into new one. By upholding this strategy of product development, Toyota has become successful in managing product life cycle, more specifically it introduces product and keeps the product growing without letting them to be matured and decline. Its exceptional organizational strategy for growth is importantly nurtured by its strategy working with around 522 subsidiaries around the world and successfully creating a wider market chain around the globe. Another way of Toyota’s organizational strategy for growth is that it reads the public mind through its research department that monitors the industry and keeps tabs on demographic and economic developments. Its mission: to predict consumer trends and create a lineup of cars and trucks to capitalize on them. Each professional is expected to spend time out in the field talking 8 to car buyers. The Japanese have a name for it: genchi genbutsu go to the scene and confirm the actual happenings. 8. Market Share While looking at the market share of Toyota in the US market since 1980 to 2006, it is realized that its market share is continuously growing. For example, in the 80s Toyota’s market share in the US was about 5% and that has risen to above 15% by 2006. So in a twenty-five years time Toyota has outstandingly tripled its market share in the US. On the other hand, market share of its three major competitors GM, Ford, and Chrysler is gradually declining. In the 80s GM’s market share in the US was above forty-five percent. But by 2006 GM’s market share has shrunk to 24%. Similarly, in the 80s Ford had more than twenty-three percent market share but by 2006 its market share has come down to sixteen percent. By being successful in increasing market share, Toyota has become the world’s most profitable automaker. In 2006, it sold 2. 5 million cars and trucks in the US market alone. Because, Toyota is already bigger than Chrysler in the US and is about to pass Ford by 2008, Toyota’s presence in the US is now so prominent that the 3,322 business leaders surveyed by Fortune have named Toyota as one of America’s most admired companies. On the financial side, Toyota’s net revenue for the fiscal year 2007 is 23. 94 trillion yen, which is an increase of 13. 8 percent compared to the fiscal year of 2006. In 2007, its operating income has increased by 19. 2 percent to 2. 23 trillion yen. Its net income has increased by 19. 8 percent to 1. 64 trillion yen. All of these figures marked record high. It is estimated that the consolidated vehicle sales for the fiscal year 2008 will be 8. 89 million units. The revenue for the fiscal year 2008 is estimated to be 25. 00 trillion yen. While we compare its net income from 2004 to 2006, it is clearly shown that its net income is increasing each year. For example its net 9 income for the year 2004 was 1,162,998 million yen that increased to 1,171,260 million yen in 2005, and in 2006 that further increased to 1,372,180 million yen. 9. Elements of Marketing Strategy Toyota’s segmentation and target market is guided by its philosophy of ‘right car in the right place’. Toyota has employed both demographic and psychographic form of multiple segmentations and targeted its market on that basis. For example, it has segmented all the countries across the globe as its market. But has also identified its focused market such as the US, Canada, EU, Australia, China, India, and Indonesia. On top of that US is its first priority being the biggest market. It is because, US consumes almost 30% of its products. Its products range with different prices from US $ 10,000. 00 to 30,000. 00 plus. The economy class cars are targeted to lower and middle level income people and the luxury cars are targeted to higher middle and higher income group people. With a variety of product attributes it targets different age group and professional groups of people. For example, for sport people it has sport cars. For environmentally sensitive people it has Prius – environmentally green car. Likewise, it has offered 100% bio-ethanol fuel car in Brazil, where is bio-ethanol potential. Likewise, those who are truck lovers or professional who need trucks, it offers them different variety of trucks. In fact, its marketing strategy – segmentation, targeting, and positioning is nurtured by its variety of offers and product attributes. Further, it has designed its market strategy at different levels – global level, regional level, and national level based on the assessment of customer needs and choices. Toyota focuses its products in market with comfort, kindness, and excitement. Toyota claims that its products harmonize ecology and emotions. One of the key factors for designing segmentation and targeting, Toyota’s analysis is always based on the condition of market, economy, purchasing 10 capacity, and consumers’ choices. Based on these factors Toyota is launching its global motorization strategy with leading-edge technology. Likewise, Toyota has upheld a very strong promotional strategy using integrated market communication (IMC) tool. On top of that, Toyota blog (http://blog. toyota. com) is another very successful mechanism of advertising and promotion. On its blog, Toyota closely pays attention to the voices of its customers and provides responses to a large amount of inquiry. 10. Elements of Market Planning Toyota has adopted three important elements in its market planning – green, safety, and low operating cost. Being based on these three important factors, Toyota has become successful to garner the market opportunity. On the whole, there seem more opportunities for Toyota than threats. However, there are some threats that cannot be denied. Opportunities: Toyota’s market share is growing each year. From about 5 percent market share in 1986, it has acquired more than 15 percent market share in the US in 2006. Its competitors’ market share is declining each year, which is the biggest opportunity for Toyota. Toyota and its competitors have similar segmentation and targeting but in creating positioning Toyota has come off much ahead than its competitors because of its products’ attributes. Further, it is also ahead of its competitors in technology front. For example, it is the first automobile producer that introduced hybrid in the market. Today, the market share for its hybrid is growing exponentially. At the same time, hybrid products of its competitors are not successful. Threats: Besides opportunities in the marketplace, Toyota’s most illustrated product – Prius has not got much success in Europe and its market share is declining in Japan itself. Further, its competitors – GM, Ford, and Chrysler have become more strategic and are being focused on 11 from cutting-edge technology to leading-edge technology. Toyota is growing with ambition to pass the GM but still GM is the number one automobile in the US and the globe. 11. Conclusion From the perspective of marketing strategy, Toyota can be taken as a company that has successfully achieved its mission statement, successfully branded its distinctive competencies, and profoundly achieved its organizational objectives. This success is based on its successful market strategy. This is corroborated by the fact that all of its products studied in this paper (Toyota Corolla, Camry, and Prius) do fall into Star quadruple under the Boston Matrix. In quintessence, it can be said that Toyota is an outstanding case for learning how to build and implement market strategy, get penetration in the market, manage product life cycle, uphold market positioning, best use of integrated market communication (IMC), and branding its product in the mindset of the customer. In short, Toyota is a notable example that proves how important is marketing strategy in the life of a company and managers. References CNNMoney, (2007), America’s Best Car Companies, Mrach 7, 2007 available on http://money. cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/03/19/8402324/index. htm visited on Nov. 20, 2007. Fuel Economy, (2008), 2008 Hybrid Vehicles, available on , http://www. fueleconomy. gov/feg/hybrid_sbs. shtml , visited on Nov. 22, 2007. Kelly Blue Book, (2007), The Most Researched Sedans, available on http://www. kbb. com/kbb/ReviewsAndRatings/default. aspx? trid=3gclid=CKrS8rHMgI8CFTa oGgodgyqT2w#ManufacturerId=49ModelId=286 visited on Nov. 27, 2007. Kotler, Phlipe Keller,Kevin Lane (2006), Marketing Management, Prentice Hall, 12th ed. 12 Marketing Green, (2007), Hybrids Shift into the Mass Market, available on http://marketinggreen. wordpress. com/2007/04/29/hybrids-shift-into-the-mass-market/ visited on Nov. 20, 2007. Plunket Research, (2007), Automotive Industry Overview, available on http://www. plunkettresearch. com/Industries/AutomobilesTrucks/AutomobilesandTrucksStatis tics/tabid/90/Default. aspx , visited on Nov. 19, 2007. Spirou, Patricia (2007), Three Step Process in Determining the Market/Position Initiatives in Strategic Planning, available on BB.

Comparison of Normal Saline and Heparin Flush

Comparison of Normal Saline and Heparin Flush Review of literature is an essential component of the research process. It aids the researcher in the formulation of the research plan or proposal and condition of the study. It aids in relating the outcomes of the study to the findings of other investigations Review of literature is defined as a critical summary of research on a topic of interest, often prepared to put a research problem in contest (Polit and Beck, 2006). The current study and review of various associated literature and review study, topics can divide as follows; Section A: Literature related to comparison of normal saline and heparin flush  to maintain the patency of intravenous line. Section B: Literature related to cost effectiveness of normal saline flush in  maintenance of peripheral intravenous catheter. Section C: Literature related to complications of using heparin solution for  maintaining patency. Section A: Literature Related to Comparison of Normal Saline and Heparin Flush to Maintain the Patency of Intravenous Line. Elsevier (2009) did a randomized double blind controlled trial to investigate the efficacy of normal saline versus heparin saline in maintaining the patency of intravenous catheter among 150 children of pediatric unit at United States. In that, Group I received normal saline flush (n=77) whereas Group II received heparin saline flush (n=73). The result showed that 72% of children were recovered from blockage during normal saline flush. Thus researcher concluded that the normal saline flush was effective in maintaining the patency of intravenous catheter. Klieiber (2008) conducted prospective, randomized double blind study to determine the efficacy of saline versus heparin flush to maintain the peripheral intravenous lock in pediatric populations among 140 children. The sample was selected randomly into two groups. Group I received normal saline flush whereas Group II children flushed with heparinized saline. The findings revealed that there was no significant difference between the groups in maintaining the patency of catheter and reduces incidence of complications. A randomized controlled double-blind trial was conducted by Esther Mok, Tany KWong (2007) for maintaining peripheral intravenous lock among 123 children of age from one to ten years. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of three flush solutions: normal saline, one unit/ml of heparin saline and ten units/ml of heparin saline for maintaining peripheral intravenous locks in children, and to establish a research-based practice in the study hospital. Group I received one unit/ml of heparin saline, Group II received ten units/ml of heparin saline and Group III received normal saline. The group that received one ml of normal saline demonstrated the highest rate of survival and the mean length of catheter showed (49.8 hours) was seventeen hours longer than the group that received one unit/ml of heparin saline (32.5 hours). The result showed that there was no significant difference among the three types of flushing solution in terms of the catheter longevi ty and incidence of intravenous complications. A study was conducted by Visanu Thamlikitkul Artit Indranoi (2006) on switching from heparinized saline flush to normal saline flush for maintaining peripheral venous catheter patency in the patients hospitalized to medical ward at Sir raj Hospital, Thailand. The study sites were ten medical wards containing two hundred and forty beds. Group I received heparinized saline as a flushing agent whereas Group II received normal saline as a flushing agent. The information on using flush fluids was collected from the physicians order sheets in the medical records at baseline, every two to four weeks during the intervention periods, and at six months after launching intervention. The results showed that the children received heparinized saline flush in February 2005, switched on to a practice with normal saline flush in June and November 2005. Hence the researcher concluded that normal saline was effective and implemented as evidence based clinical practice. Janet Pettit (2003) performed a randomized double blind study to identify the efficacy of saline versus heparin flush to maintain the peripheral intravenous lock in pediatric populations among 124 infants over twenty eight days of age in pediatric ICU at Doctors Medical Centre, Modeto. The findings revealed that saline flush had longer period of patency. Thus the researcher concluded that saline was efficacious and safest flush in maintaining the peripheral intravenous catheter. Nelson (2002) conducted a randomized double blind study to assess the use of 0.9% normal saline flush with or without heparin for maintaining peripheral indwelling intermittent infusion devices among fifty eight children up to one year with twenty four gauge needle. Group I received ten units per ml of heparin solution (n=26) and Group II received 0.9% normal saline flush (n=32). The result showed that there was no significance between 0.9% normal saline flush with or without heparin solutions in maintaining patency of twenty four gauge peripheral intermittent intravenous devices in children younger than one year. Schultz, Drew Hewitt (2002) investigated a randomized double blind study on comparison of normal saline and heparinized saline flushes for patency of intravenous locks among forty nine neonates at Maine Medical Center, Portland. The objective of the study was to determine the efficacy of patency of intravenous locks maintained with normal saline solution compared with heparinized saline solution. Group I received 0.5 ml of heparinized saline flush containing two units/ml of heparin (n=20) whereas Group II received 0.5 ml of normal saline flush (n=29). There were no significant difference (p =0.841) between mean scores for heparin flushed catheters (M = 41.5 hours, SD = 44.0) and saline-flushed catheters (M = 30.4 hours, SD = 20.8). The researcher concluded that catheter failure was significantly longer for catheters flushed with heparinized saline compared with those flushed with normal saline. A study was conducted by Harahan Berends (2000) to evaluate the efficacy of saline versus ten units/ml heparin for peripheral intravenous flushes among 240 neonates of Special Care Nurseries at a Level III Large Mid Western University Teaching Hospital. Here an experimental group design was used to compare the longevity of heparin and saline intravenous locks. Data were collected from a convenient sampling technique. Group I received ten units per ml of heparin (n=123) whereas Group II received preservative-free normal saline solution (n=117). The result showed that there was no significant statistical difference in intravenous catheter longevity between intravenous locks flushed with ten units/ml heparin and those flushed with normal saline. Krista Brown, Tay-Uyboco Douglas McMillan (1999) did a randomized controlled trial to determine the relative efficacy and safety of peripheral intravenous locks maintained with heparin saline solutions compared with those maintained with normal saline among 186 neonates at Foot Hills Hospital, Calgary, Alberta. Group I received normal saline (n=93) whereas Group II received heparin saline (n=93). Patients were chosen to receive either heparinized saline with five units/ml or 0.3 ml of normal saline, in the intravenous catheter every six hourly, administered by nursing staff in a blinded manner. The result showed that there was no difference in catheter lifespan (39 ±24 hour for the heparinized saline group; 34 ±22 hour for the normal saline group) and no difference in the number of intravenous catheters per patient (1.9 heparinized group, 1.6 normal saline group). The researcher concluded that there was no difference between heparinized normal saline and normal saline flush in neonates in maintaining the patency of twenty four gauge peripheral intravenous locks. Heilskov, Kleiber Johnson (1998) did a randomized double blind controlled 3-arm trial of heparin and saline for maintaining intravenous locks among ninety neonates at University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, USA. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of saline, heparin two units (U) per ml saline, and heparin ten units per ml saline flush solutions on the duration of intravenous locks and the incidence of intravenous infiltration in neonates. Group I received heparin two units/ml saline (n=27), Group II received heparin ten units/ml saline flush (n=28) and Group III received normal saline (n=25). Catheter flushed at least every six hourly. The outcome measures total hours from the time the intravenous was inserted to the time the intravenous was removed; hours from the time the intravenous was first flushed to the time the intravenous was removed; number of intravenous removed because of infiltration. The result showed that there was no statistical or clinical dif ference between the three groups for duration of intravenous therapy or for incidence of complications. Bridget Mudge, Dion Forcsier Mary Jo Slattery (1998) conducted a comparative study on heparin and saline flush solutions regarding patency of 24-gauge peripheral intermittent infusion devices. A prospective, non-randomized, sequential, blinded study design was conducted on a pediatric and a neonatal were similar for age, peripheral intermittent intravenous devices (PIID) placement site, irritating substances infused, and initial IV function. The median duration of catheters flushed with normal saline was 42 hours and with heparin was 35.3 hours. Kaplan-Meier Survival Analysis indicated that the duration of catheters flushed with saline was significantly longer than those flushed with heparin (p = .02). More catheters flushed with heparin were removed because of problems (p = .027). Results of this study suggested that normal saline was more effective than heparin in maintaining the patency of small, 24-gauge catheter. Kotter (1996) conducted a randomized double blind study on heparin versus saline to maintain the patency of intermittent intravenous device maintenance among fifty one neonates including premature neonates, less than one month of age admitted to a Level II Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. Group I received ten units/ml heparin (n=27), whereas Group II received normal saline flush (n=24). Catheter was flushed every fourth hourly with heparin or normal saline solutions. The researcher concluded that there was no statistically significant difference in average duration of patency between normal saline-flushed catheters and heparinized saline-flushed catheters. Phlebitis, occlusion, infiltration, and leaking occurred with equal frequency for both solutions. Kulkarni, Elsner, Ouellet Zeldin (1994) investigated a randomized double blind study on heparinized saline versus normal saline in maintaining patency of the radial artery catheter among seventy eight adults in the surgical intensive care unit of Toronto East General Orthopedic Hospital. The objective of the study was to compare the ability of normal saline versus heparinized saline infusion to maintain patency of the radial artery catheter used for monitoring blood pressure or multiple blood sampling. Group I (n=40) patients those who were admitted on odd numbered dates received heparinized saline two units per ml and Group II (n=38) admitted on even dates received normal saline, both as continuous flush solutions. At 96 hours of cannulation, 92% of the catheters in the heparinized saline group were patent compared with 74% in the normal saline group. The result showed that there was no significant difference between flushing with normal saline and heparinized saline in the mainte nance of radial arterial line patency. A comparative randomized controlled trial was conducted by Robertson (1994) on the intermittent intravenous therapy to determine whether heparinized saline solution was a superior flushing agent to normal saline among152 children between the ages of two months to eighteen years. Group I were allocated with heparinized saline as a flushing agent, and Group II were allocated with normal saline as a flushing agent. Each day intravenous sites were examined for signs of phlebitis and on removal of each cannula was flushed to check for fibrin. On Chi-square testing, highly significant associations emerged between the incidence of phlebitis and the use of the intravenous antibiotics such as Tobramycin (p=0.05) andor Timentin (p=0.008). Young children were found to have a significantly higher incidence of blocked cannulae regardless of the flushing solution used. The researcher concluded that there was no significant difference detected in either the duration of intravenous therapy, the pate ncy of the intravenous line or the incidence of phlebitis when normal saline was used to flush the intravenous cannula. Kleiber, Harahan, Fagan Zittergruen (1993) conducted a double-blind study to determine the efficacy of saline versus heparin flush solution to maintain peripheral intravenous locks in a pediatric population among 124 infants over twenty eight days of age. Group I received normal saline as a flushing agent, whereas Group II received normal saline with heparin as a flushing agent. The result revealed that the heparin and saline groups were comparable for total hour duration of the intravenous and for incidence of complications. Hence the researcher concluded that saline was efficacious in maintaining patency of intermittent intravenous peripheral intravenous locks in children. A comparative study was conducted by Rob, Kelly Trish (1992) on normal saline or heparinized saline flushing on function of arterial lines among sixty-five patients in most New Zealand intensive care units. Group I received normal saline (n=35) where as Group II received three ml/hour as a continuous flush. The scores for the intravascular line for each patient were summed, and the percentage of the total possible score was calculated. Mean study duration was 5.8 and 6.6 days for the normal saline and heparinized saline groups, respectively. Mean percentage scores were 83% with normal saline group and 82% with heparinized saline group. The statistical findings showed that there was no difference between the groups at 95% confidence interval. Thus researcher concluded that heparin as a continuous flush at three units/hour does not improve the function of arterial lines compared with a continuous normal-saline flush. A quasi-experimental study was conducted by Tuten Gueldner (1991) on the efficacy of normal saline versus diluted heparin for maintaining the patency of peripheral intermittent intravenous devices in hospitalized medical-surgical patients among seventy seven children. Group I received normal saline solution, whereas Group II received diluted heparin. The statistical findings revealed that there were no incidence of site loss due to coagulation in either group, moreover no significant difference in the incidence of site loss associated with phlebitis (p=0.708) or infiltration (p=0.910). The researcher concluded that normal saline may be an effective alternative to heparin, for maintaining the patency of peripheral intermittent intravenous devices. Ashton, Gibson Summers (1990) conducted a randomized double-blind study on the effects of heparin versus saline solution on intermittent infusion device irrigation at Shawnee Mission Medical Center among thirty two patients. The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of one ml of 0.9% normal saline with ten units of heparin in one ml normal saline solution, in maintaining patency and reducing the incidence of phlebitis in patients with intermittent infusion devices. The statistical findings revealed that there was no significant difference between the groups in phlebitis or patency variables. The researcher suggested that 0.9% normal saline was as effective as ten units per ml of heparin in normal saline solution in maintaining intermittent infusion device patency and preventing phlebitis. Hamilton, Plis, Clay Sylvan (1988) conducted a randomized double-blind study on heparin saline versus 0.9% normal saline injection for maintaining patency of indwelling intermittent infusion devices in the Department of Pharmacy practice, Albany College among 307 adult patients. Group I received one ml of heparin saline as a flushing solution (n=170), whereas Group II received 0.9% normal saline flush solution (n=137). The result revealed that heparin offers no advantage over 0.9% normal saline injection in maintaining the patency of intermittent intravenous devices. The researcher concluded that there was no significant difference in the duration of catheter patency or incidence of phlebitis was observed between the groups. Epperson (1984) did a randomized study on the efficacy of 0.9% normal saline with and without heparin for maintaining indwelling intermittent injection sites in the medical and surgical units of an acute-care hospital among 412 patients. Three different solutions were used to flush intravenous catheters. Group I were flushed with 0.9% normal saline alone, Group II were flushed with heparin 10 units/ml in 0.9% normal saline and group III were flushed with heparin 100 units/ml in 0.9% normal saline. Heparin locks were flushed after each medication administration and every eight hours when medications were not being given. Using a standardized evaluation form, one of five intravenous therapists evaluated each site daily for the presence of phlebitis and loss of patency. Length of catheter placement and the percentage of patient days during which patients received cephalosporin and penicillin antibiotics were examined for each group. Rates of site loss caused by phlebitis or loss of pate ncy were compared in each group. The result showed that there was no significant differences were found among the three groups in the mean duration of heparin-lock placement, the percentage of patient days during which antibiotics were prescribed, or the rate of site loss caused by phlebitis or loss of patency. Section B: Literature Related to Cost Effectiveness of Normal Saline in Maintenance of Peripheral Intravenous Catheter. Hephzibah Alexander (International Journal for the Advancement of Science Arts, 2010) conducted a systematic review of the study on heparin versus normal saline as a flush solution. The electronic database of Ovid, Pub-Med, the Cochrane Library and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR) was searched for heparin or normal saline (either singly or in combinations). Relevant studies were critically appraised and evidence obtained was graded according to the modified Catalan Agency for Health Technology Assessment scale (CAHTA). In terms of safety, the findings indicate that it might be safer to use normal saline as it does not have the risks associated with heparin. Cost analysis studies proved that without any doubt the use of normal saline flush results in a significant amount of cost savings. For arterial catheters, majority of the available data suggest that heparin saline given as a continuous flush at low doses improved catheter patency. The result of the study reveal ed that normal saline should be used as an alternative to heparin in intravenous catheters. Low-dose heparin with 0.25 units per ml normal saline should be added to the infuscate to maintain patency of arterial catheters. The researcher concluded that heparin as an intermittent flush was ineffective and normal saline was just as effective as and more efficacious than heparin. Karen Le Duce (1997) investigated a prospective, randomized, double blind controlled trial on the efficacy of normal saline solution versus heparin solution for maintaining patency of peripheral intravenous catheters in children at the emergency department of childrens hospital, USA among 150 children. The purpose of this study was to establish the effects of heparin flush and saline solution flush solutions in maintaining patency of infusion devices in the pediatric population, and to establish cost-saving implications related to normal saline solution versus heparin flush for PIIDs in terms of pharmacy costs and costs related to nursing time to both procedures. Group I (n = 77) received 3 ml of a ten units heparin/ml normal saline solution intravenous flush whereas Group II (n = 73) received three ml of normal saline solution for the intravenous flush. Descriptive and correlation statistics were used to analyze the data. The result showed that there were no significant differences between the two groups for demographics or complications. Annual cost savings were computed with an estimated annual savings of nursing time and unit cost of solutions equaling $27,594. The researcher concluded that the normal saline solution should be used as an alternative to heparin solutions for the maintenance of peripheral intravenous devices. Jerri Shoaf Sandra Oliver (1997) did a study on the efficacy of normal saline with and without heparin for maintaining intermittent intravenous site in the coronary care unit of Scott and White Memorial Hospital among two hundred and sixty surgical patients. Group I received normal saline with heparin as a flushing agent, whereas Group II received normal saline without heparin as a flushing agent. The researcher concluded that heparinized saline was not needed to maintain the patency of an intermittent intravenous site, and the use of saline solution alone was less irritating, causes less occurrence of phlebitis, less expensive to patients, and saves nursing time. A randomized comparative study conducted by Paisley et al (1997) on the use of heparin and normal saline flushes in neonatal intravenous catheters among eighty seven preterm and term infants ranging from 33 weeks to 44 weeks of gestation in the University of Missouri-Columbia Childrens Hospital. Data were collected between February 1994 and March 1995. The majority of infants were thirty eight to forty weeks gestation (M = 38.46 weeks, S.D. = 2.48). Group I (n=33) infants received 0.6 ml of heparin solution containing 10 units/ml of heparin and Group II (n=54) received 0.6 ml of normal saline as flushing agent. The frequency of flush was 0.6 ml flush every fourth hourly. The researcher concluded that the normal saline was much cheaper than heparin. Nursing time was saved using a single solution and physician spends time in writing order was saved by standing orders. If only normal saline was used, the chance for error, over dosage, heparin-associated drug incompatibilities and hepari n induced thrombocytopenia would be eliminated. Section C: Literature Related To Complications Of Using Heparin Solution For Maintaining Patency. Mitchell et al (2009) conducted a study on a systematic review of heparin flushing and other interventions to maintain patency of central venous catheters. The objective of this study was to assess clinical studies comparing the effectiveness of different means of maintaining central venous catheter patency. A search was conducted using the MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane, National Guideline Clearinghouse and University Health System Consortium databases. The method was a systematic review of effectiveness using grade criteria to assess the strength of evidence for each intervention. Flushing with heparin was a routine part of central venous catheter maintenance, but it presents risk, including heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Other techniques used to prevent occlusion of catheters include saline flushes, heparin-bonded catheters and pressure caps. The result showed that flushing catheters with saline solution was more effective than flushing with heparin. A study was conducted by Stephens et al (1997) on normal saline versus heparin flush for maintaining central venous catheter patency during aphaeresis collection of peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCS) among seventy eight cancer patients. The purpose of this study was to examine the incidence of thrombotic occlusions in central venous catheters using heparin compared to saline flushing. Group I (n=29) received saline flushes and Group II (n=49) received heparin with 100 units per ml of saline flushes. Numerous studies comparing heparin to saline flushing in peripheral devices suggested equal rates of thrombotic occlusions. The outcome of the study suggested that serious complications including drug interactions and heparin induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis syndrome in association with heparin flushing. The researcher concluded that saline was as effective as heparin for maintaining patency of central venous catheters. Triolo, Pamela Goode (1991) conducted a study on meta-analysis to estimate the effects of heparin flush and saline flush solutions on maintaining patency, preventing phlebitis, and increasing duration in peripheral heparin locks. The researcher concluded that saline was as effective as heparin in maintaining patency, preventing phlebitis, and increasing duration in peripheral intravenous locks. Quality of care can be enhanced by using saline as the flush solution, thereby eliminating problems associated with anticoagulant effects and drug incompatibilities. In addition, an estimated yearly savings of $109,100,000 to $218,200,000 U.S. health care dollars could be attained. Barrett Lester (1990) did a double-blinded, cross-over study on heparin versus saline flushing solutions for a period of two months in a small community hospital at Aroostook Medical Centre, Presque Isle. Floor nurses were used as observers and observe catheter failures, as either loss of patency or phlebitis. Data revealed a statistically significant advantage to using saline flushes when both loss of patency and phlebitis were combined (p